EDP Sciences logo
Submit your paper
Search
Menu
All issues Volume 38 (2025) Aquat. Living Resour., 38 (2025) 8 Full HTML
Open Access
Review
Issue
Aquat. Living Resour.
Volume 38, 2025
Article Number 8
Number of page(s) 24
DOI https://doi.org/10.1051/alr/2025005
Published online 13 May 2025

© A.D. Karunarathne and K.D. Karunarathne, Published by EDP Sciences 2025

Licence Creative CommonsThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Introduction

Humans have utilised jellyfish for centuries (Omori and Nakano 2001), and the global demand for jellyfish has increased in recent decades (Brotz 2016a). Jellyfish have diverse applications across multiple fields, including biotechnology (Zimmer 2009); animal feeds in livestock and aquaculture (Barbier and Milo 2010; Brotz 2016a); live bait in trap fisheries (Karunarathne and de Croos 2021; Karunarathne et al., 2021); pesticides (Hossain et al., 2013; Hussein and Saleh 2014) and fertilisers in agriculture (Chun et al., 2011; Emadodin et al., 2020; Borchert et al., 2021). They are also used as ornaments in the aquarium industry (Aquatic Invertebrate TAG 2013); as a collagen source (Cho et al., 2014) in the cosmetic industry (Kim et al., 2016); and in biomedical applications (Ames 2018) and pharmaceutical applications (Elliot et al., 2017). Additionally, they serve as microplastic filters in wastewater treatment plants (Freeman et al., 2020; Lengar et al., 2021). However, the primary use of jellyfish remains as a food source for humans, with reports indicating the consumption of ∼35 species worldwide (Brotz et al., 2017: Tab. 2). Beyond their economic and culinary value, jellyfish also play a significant ecological role in marine ecosystems (Lüskow et al., 2021; Karunarathne et al., 2024a).

The global market for processed jellyfish remains robust, with China importing ∼3,000 (range: 2,000–4,000) forty-foot containers of processed jellyfish belonging to 4 or 5 commercial types (Catostylidae; Lobonemidae; Rhizostomatidae; Stomolophidae) from about 15 nations (Philippines, Pakistan, Russia, South Korea, Malaysia, USA, Mexico, Japan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Singapore, Iran, India, Indonesia, and China Hong Kong) (Wang Rongbin, pers. comm.). Recent statistics show that five continents (except Africa and Antarctica) contribute to commercial fisheries of jellyfish, whereas the global capture production (as Rhopilema spp. and Stomolophus meleagris Agassiz, 1860) was estimated at 255,000 tons in 2020 (FAO 2022a, 2023). The global annual average production of jellyfish from 2000 to 2020 was reported to be 291,600 tonnes, while its value was 10.7 million US dollars (FAO 2023). The highest annual jellyfish catch occurs in Asia, followed by the Americas, Australia, and Europe (Brotz 2016b: Fig. 10.1).

Three major geographic regions are identifiable from Asia where commercial jellyfish fisheries take place: 1) Southeast Asia (SEA), 2) Eastern Asia (EA), and 3) Southern Asia (SA) (Fig. 1). The major fisheries for jellyfish are in EA (particularly China, Japan, South Korea and the Russian Federation) and SEA (particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam), but increasing demand has led to small-scale fisheries in other areas (Brotz 2016a). China continues to dominate worldwide in the production, consumption, and aquaculture of jellyfish (Dong et al., 2018), and Chinese emigrants likely introduced jellyfish fisheries to Malaysia and Indonesia in the mid-twentieth century, followed by Thailand and the Philippines in the 1970s. Later, other Asian countries, including Myanmar, Vietnam, India, Sri Lanka, and Russia, initiated jellyfish fisheries to meet the demand for jellyfish as a human food source (Pauly et al., 2009; Brotz 2016b). Omori and Nakano (2001) comprehensively studied the jellyfish fishery of SEA, and the average annual catch of jellyfish in SEA was estimated at 169,000 tonnes (wet weight) between 1988 and 1999. During this period, the global jellyfish catch was ∼321,000 tonnes (Omori and Nakano 2001), thus, it is clear that almost half of the global jellyfish production was from SEA. This catch has since almost tripled, reaching 900,000 tonnes by 2016, harvested by 19 countries, predominantly in SEA (Brotz and Pauly 2017). Although the jellyfish fisheries in SEA have already been studied, there has been no appraisal of the other two Asian regions. In this context, we attempt to draw an overall picture of jellyfish fisheries in SA by identifying their present status and trends. Although Türkiye is an Asian country, it was not counted in the present study, as its jellyfishing grounds are in European waters (refer to Edelist et al., 2021), and its jellyfish fishery ceased after 2006 (FAO 2024a).

thumbnail Fig. 1

Three major regions (circles) where commercial jellyfish fishery takes place in Asia: Southern Asia (SA); Southeast Asia (SEA); and Eastern Asia (EA). Note: The Catostylidae, Lobonemidae, and Rhizostomatidae are the jellyfish families primarily targeted in the regions SA, SEA, and EA, respectively.

2 Jellyfish fisheries in SA

So far, six countries, namely Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are known to be involved in jellyfish fisheries in SA region (Tab. 1) occupying fishing grounds in the northern Indian Ocean and adjacent seas (Fig. 2). Reliable data on jellyfish fisheries are lacking for other nations in this region, i.e., Iraq, Kuwait, Maldives, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Bahrain: Jellyfish, locally termed “meduzot” (Picow 2010), were fished for the first time in Bahrain in 2003, with significant developments and contributions to the local fishing industry (Erftemeijer and Langenberg 2010; TradeArabia 2011). The annual jellyfish catch has shown remarkable growth, comprising 37% of the total commercial fisheries catch in Bahrain in 2009 (Ali and Abahussain 2013). By 2009, the fisherfolk community benefiting (local fishers and their families) from Bahrain's jellyfish fishery included 385 people (RECOFI Fisheries Reports 2012). A seafood processing company paid local fishers around 8 US dollars (3 BD) for every 40 to 50 kilograms of jellyfish they caught (TradeArabia 2011). The target species was the catostylid Catostylus perezi Ranson, 1945 (Bahrain seafood exporters, pers. comm.), and the management authority for the jellyfish fishery in Bahrain is the “Public Commission for the Protection of Marine Resources, Environment and Wildlife” (RECOFI Fisheries Reports 2012).

Bangladesh: Das et al. (2023) confirmed occasional harvesting and processing (semi-dried, salted products) of small amounts of brown and white jellyfish species, respectively, known as the catostylid Crambionella annandalei Rao, 1931 and the lobonemid Lobonemoides gracilis Light, 1914 [reported as Lobonemoides robustus], for export to the Chinese market. From 2000 to 2006, jellyfish blooms were relatively common in the marine waters of Bangladesh and its neighbouring Myanmar, leading to some fishing vessels engaging in harvesting and processing along the southwest coast (Das et al., 2023). Despite jellyfish being a significant component of seafood export in neighbouring countries, a lack of information, awareness, and processing facilities has hindered the development of the jellyfish fishery in Bangladesh. Commercial harvesting requires dedicated processing facilities, and an understanding of distribution, occurrence, and seasonality is crucial for profitable investment (Das et al., 2023).

India: India has harvested edible jellyfish since the 1980s, mainly for export (Govindan 1984; Krishnan 1984; Prabhu et al., 1987, 1988; Kuthalingam et al., 1989). In 1984, 1985, and 1988, India exported 18 tonnes, 14 tonnes, and 10 tonnes of processed jellyfish, respectively (FAO 2024b). Except for Maharashtra and Goa, the other three states on the west coast of India, namely Gujarat (Kumawat et al., 2023), Karnataka (HFS 2005) and Kerala (Chinnadurai et al., 2021; Sreeram et al., 2021), are known to be involved in jellyfish fisheries, while on the east coast of India, all four coastal states, namely Tamil Nadu (Chidambaram 1984; Murugan and Durgekar 2008), Andhra Pradesh (Behera et al., 2020a), Odisha (Roul et al., 2021a) and West Bengal (HFS 2005), have contributed to this fishery (Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021). Currently, active jellyfish fisheries are found along the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Gujarat only. The reported catch during the jellyfish seasons in Gujarat (April/May and November/December) was ∼250 tonnes in 2009 and 800 tonnes in 2010 (CMFRI 2010). It has been estimated that the potential jellyfish fisheries resources in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone amount to 200,000 tonnes (HFS 2020), whereas the potential species are the catostylids Crambionella orsini (Vanhöffen, 1888) (Chinnadurai et al., 2021; Sreeram et al., 2021), C. annandalei (Behera et al., 2020a) and C. perezi (Kumawat et al., 2023), the lobonemid Lobonema smithii Mayer, 1910 (Murugan and Durgekar 2008), and the rhizostomatid Rhopilema hispidum (Vanhöffen, 1888) (Panda and Madhu 2009 [as Rhopilema esculentum]; Kumawat et al., 2023).

Iran: The Islamic Republic of Iran is one of the main fishery producers in the region, benefitting from its extensive coastline stretching along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, and along the southern part of the Caspian Sea. Jellyfish are harvested in Iranian waters using different methods (Roshan Moniri et al., 2013), but detailed information on the fishery remains scarce. According to Iranian seafood exporters, no jellyfish fishery exists along the Caspian Sea coast of Iran. The main fishing grounds are located off the coasts of Khuzestan Province and Bushehr Province, in the Persian Gulf, but jellyfish are occasionally collected in waters of other coastal provinces as well. Three edible species of jellyfish, namely R. hispidum, C. perezi (see Jafari et al., 2019: Fig. 1), and C. orsini, occur in the coastal waters of Iran. However, so far, only C. perezi has been known to be harvested for export (Iranian seafood exporters, pers. comm.).

Pakistan: Fisheries for jellyfish were established in Pakistan in 2003, with the appearance of huge blooms of jellyfish (Psomadakis et al., 2015). Currently, only two species of jellyfish, C. perezi and R. hispidum are harvested along the Balochistan coast and the Sindh coast of Pakistan (Gul et al., 2015). As there is no domestic consumption of jellyfish in Pakistan, the entire catch is exported to EA and SEA countries after processing (Muhammed and Sultana 2008). According to the (WWF 2020), about 2,500 tonnes of processed jellyfish are exported from Pakistan annually, and a peak export was noticed during 2005–2007 when about 4,000 tonnes of jellyfish products were exported to China and Vietnam annually. However, this data is yet to be verified. It is estimated that more than 10,000 people are engaged in jellyfish fisheries in Pakistan, and this provides an additional source of income especially for small-scale fishers in coastal areas of the country (WWF 2020).

Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka entered the jellyfishing industry in the 1980s (Anonymous 1986) and became one of the major suppliers by the 2000s exporting processed jellyfish in large quantities (Anonymous 2007; Kuruwita 2008; Naalir 2008; Perera 2008). Sri Lanka is home to four commercially harvestable edible jellyfish species (Karunarathne and de Croos 2023a), but despite the availability of resources, the country currently exports only the processed products of two types of jellyfish (El Gamal 2015), specifically known as C. orsini and L. gracilis, which are harvested at the southeast coast and northeast coast of the country, respectively (Karunarathne et al., 2024b). A recent comprehensive survey spanning from 2016 to 2020, conducted by Karunarathne and de Croos (2023b, 2025), revealed that the jellyfish fishery in Sri Lanka is a highly seasonal activity done by artisanal fishers, but it has not continued after 2017 due to a lack of sufficient jellyfish blooms around the country.

Table 1

Fishing areas, seasons, and fishing methods for jellyfish species in southern Asian counties. Note: Each number in the second column correspondence to Fig. 2.

Table 2

Jellyfish processing and exporting in southern Asia.

thumbnail Fig. 2

Jellyfishing grounds in southern Asia (SA; 1, Bahrain; 2 and 3, Iran; 4 and 5, Pakistan; 6 to 21, India; 22, Bangladesh; 23 and 24, Sri Lanka): 1. Northern Bahrain coast (Gulf of Bahrain); 2. Khuzestan coast; 3. Bushehr coast; 4. Balochistan coast, 5. Sindh coast; 6. Kutch coast of Gujarat (Gulf of Kutch); 7. Saurashtra coast of Gujarat; 8. Udupi coast of Karnataka; 9. Kollam coast of Kerala; 10. Kanyakumari coast of Tamil Nadu; 11. Tuticorin coast of Tamil Nadu; 12. Ramanathapuram coast of Tamil Nadu; 13. Nagapattinam-Puducherry coast of Tamil Nadu; 14. Viluppuram-Chengalpattu coast of Tamil Nadu; 15. Thiruvallur coast of Tamil Nadu; 16. Guntur-Prakasam coast of Andhra Pradesh; 17. Krishna coast of Andhra Pradesh; 18. East Godavari coast of Andhra Pradesh; 19. Visakhapatnam coast of Andhra Pradesh; 20. Puri coast of Odisha; 21. Digha coast of West Bengal; 22. Cox’s Bazar coast; 23. Hambantota-Batticaloa coast; 24. Chilaw-Mannar coast.

2.1 Estimated jellyfish landings

There were several challenges in estimating jellyfish landing volumes in SA. One such challenge was the lack of reliable landing data before 2000. Therefore, to derive the final landing volumes, the present study considered all available data such as literature data and FAO (2024a, b) data [FAO estimated data are denoted by EF], published from 2000 onwards, up to 2022, the latest year of data available. Another challenge was that even though some scattered data were available after 2000, unlike export volumes, the accuracy level of landing volumes was lower. Therefore, to strengthen the accuracy of the landing volumes, the present study also considered the estimated landing values derived from the highest estimated export data (from literature or FAO) multiplied by the conversion factor 10 [Landing data estimated with conversion factor 10 are denoted by EC]. The original literature and FAO landing (capture production) values were then compared with EC values (country-specific, on a yearly basis). Next, the highest recorded values (original literature, FAO, or EC) from the comparison were used for the final landing calculations. Here, we assume that the raw materials of a particular bulk of exports were landed in the same year.

According to Pauly et al. (2022), the conversion factor of dried jellyfish to raw jellyfish is 5. However, a conversion factor of 5 seemed to be too conservative when considering data from different sources (Hsieh et al., 2001; Kannappan et al., 2013; El Gamal 2015; Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021). Therefore, export data with a conversion factor of 10, derived from the mean of available conversion factors, were considered for the present study by incorporating the authors' insights from India and Sri Lanka. For example, in 2005, it is estimated that 2,000EC tonnes of C. perezi were landed in Gujarat, based on a conversion factor of 10 (data from Kumawat et al., 2023). Additionally, India and Pakistan exported 300 tonnes and 1,600 tonnes of processed jellyfish to China in 2012 (López-Martínez and Álvarez-Tello 2013), suggesting an estimated landing of 3,000EC tonnes and 16,000EC tonnes, respectively. In 2014, Pakistan exported processed jellyfish to SA, notably Vietnam, with a peak export quantity of ∼1,400 tonnes (Gul et al., 2015), corresponding to an estimated landing of 14,000EC tonnes.

A meta-analysis revealed a significant variation in jellyfish landings with periodical peaks by country across SA during 2000 to 2022, probably due to the specific periodical blooming pattern of the catostylid species. India is the leading contributor with a total of 390,716.7 tonnes (54.8%) [16987.7 tonnes per production year (PPY)], with peak years in 2003  (55,560EC tonnes) and 2013 (41,030EC tonnes). Pakistan follows with 158,757.6 tonnes (22.3%) [12,212.1 tonnes PPY], peaking in 2012 (16,000EC tonnes) and 2021 (52,240EC tonnes). Bahrain contributed 119,414.3 tonnes (16.7%) [2,285.0 tonnes PPY], with peaks in 2007 (12,600EC tonnes) and 2012 (70,000EC tonnes). Sri Lanka reported 25,228.5 tonnes (3.5%) [3,604.1 tonnes PPY], peaking in 2007 (9,564.4EC tonnes) and 2008 (12,661.1EC tonnes). Iran reported lower cumulative landings of 19,531.0 tonnes (2.7%) [2,170.1 tonnes PPY], peaking in 2010 (7,918EF tonnes). Bangladesh reported only 3.5 tonnes in 2019, and for the remaining years, landings data were not available, making it the least contributor in SA. This may indicate either a lack of a jellyfish fishery during this time or potential data collection and reporting issues. Overall, the cumulative landing for the entire SA region during 2000 to 2022 was 713,651.6 tonnes [31,028.3 tonnes PPY] (Supplementary Tab. 1).

From 2000 to 2003, only India contributed significantly to jellyfish landings in SA as a dominant player. Jellyfishing operations in Gujarat harvested 7,723 tonnes in 2000 and 10,281 tonnes in 2001, and Andhra Pradesh harvested 11,342 tonnes annually in both 2002 and 2003 (HFS 2005). Likewise, periodic reporting of jellyfish landings in India from 2000 to 2003 ranged from 7,723 to 30,866 tonnes annually, with an average of 22,515 tonnes (HFS 2005). Until 2003, although several countries in SA already started their jellyfish fishery, only India had recorded accurate data. However, from 2004 onwards, other countries also began to contribute significantly to the jellyfish fishery in SA and quantitative values became available, underscoring the growing importance of these countries in the industry (Fig. 3).

The species-specific analysis of jellyfish landings in SA from 2000 to 2022 reveals that C. perezi led with the highest total landings at 162,411.7 tonnes (54.6%) [8,548.0 tonnes PPY], followed by C. orsini with 68,643.4 tonnes (23.1%) [7,627.0 tonnes PPY], C. annandalei with 49,721.5 tonnes (16.7%) [5,424.6 tonnes PPY], L. smithii with 11,455.0 tonnes (3.9%) [5,727.5 tonnes PPY], R. hispidum with 4,716.5 tonnes (1.6%) [786.1 tonnes PPY], and L. gracilis with 439.3 tonnes (0.1%) [109.8 tonnes PPY]. The highest recorded species-specific landings included the years 2007 and 2012 for C. perezi; 2002–2003 and 2007–2008 for C. orsini; and 2002–2003 and 2017–2018 for C. annandalei. Lobonema smithii was recorded only in 2007 and 2008, with a peak of 10,955 tonnes in 2007. The highest species diversity was noted in 2017, with five out of six species contributing to the jellyfish fishery (Fig. 4). Overall, C. perezi, C. orsini, and C. annandalei were consistently prominent, whereas R. hispidum, L. smithii, and L. gracilis had more sporadic landings. Thus, the comparative analysis highlights that catostylids are the main species contributing to the jellyfish fishery in SA, whereas the other species contribute less (Fig. 5). Here, we have assumed that all the jellyfish fisheries data from Bahrain and Iran are related to a single species, C. perezi.

thumbnail Fig. 3

The country-wise jellyfish landings (quantity) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative landings in each country, as a percentage, are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.
thumbnail Fig. 4

The annual species-wise jellyfish landings (quantity) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative landings of each species, as a percentage, are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.
thumbnail Fig. 5

The annual species-wise jellyfish landings (percentage) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022. Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.

2.2 Jellyfish processing

Jellyfish processing (pre-processing and processing) in SA is a stepwise procedure (Tab. 2), as in many other parts of Asia. Pre-processing includes the separation of the bell (umbrella) from the oral arms on board, with the parts used in the jellyfishery retained and the unused or low-valued portions discarded into the sea (Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021; Karunarathne and de Croos 2025). For example, oral arms from most jellyfish, e.g., catostylids, are processed in India, but in the case of L. smithii, only the bell portion is selected for processing (Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021). In Pakistan, the oral appendages of C. perezi and R. hispidum are used for processing, and bell parts are discarded at sea (Gul et al., 2015). However, on some occasions, both the bell and oral appendages are taken to the landing site. For example, in Odisha (India) fishers generally transport only the oral arms to shore but may bring the entire medusa if catches are poor (Roul et al., 2021a). Also, in Bangladesh (Das et al., 2023) and Sri Lanka (Karunarathne and de Croos 2025), the whole medusa of L. gracilis is utilised for processing. As the next main step after pre-processing, to minimise losses, fishers in SA practice post-harvest measures by ensuring that marketable portions are stored until reaching the landing site (Karunarathne and de Croos 2023b, 2025). Processing usually occurs at temporary huts near landing sites, which also helps to ensure a minimal post-harvest loss.

After pre-processing and post-harvest measures, usable jellyfish parts are processed through further sub-steps. The processing methods can vary slightly based on the region and species. For example, in Sri Lanka, L. gracilis (Lobonemidae) is processed with alum [KAl(SO4)2] and common salt [NaCl] following a five-step procedure: cleaning, first curing, second curing, sorting, and packing (Karunarathne and de Croos 2023b, 2025). In Pakistan, a different approach is followed; the oral appendages of R. hispidum (Rhizostomatidae) are further separated into scapulets, oral arms, and fused portions, each processed individually, with alum/salt (Gul et al., 2015). The processing of C. annandalei (Behera et al., 2020a) and C. perezi (Kumawat et al., 2023) oral arms follows a methodical procedure, which is mostly similar to the processing of C. orsini (Catostylidae). To process C. orsini, 1.5 kilograms of alum and 50 kilograms of common salt are added for every 100 kilograms of oral arms into the tank and thoroughly centrifuged (Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021). Likewise, the oral arms of jellyfish undergo a stepwise processing procedure, involving soaking in various mixtures of salts and alum to create a semi-dried product. After processing, the semi-dried oral arms are graded into different export categories based on their size before being packed into 20-litre containers. Each bucket contains 16 kilograms of oral arms. The processed oral arms of jellyfish find a good market in SEA and EA countries, particularly China (Roul et al., 2021a, b).

The processing results in significant shrinkage of raw jellyfish, with 3 to 20 kilograms of raw material required to obtain 1 kilogram of processed jellyfish (data from Kannappan et al., 2013; El Gamal 2015; Riyas and Biju Kumar 2021), depending on the species and processing formula (Hsieh et al., 2001). The colour of freshly processed jellyfish is creamy white but gradually turns yellowish as the product ages. In the Asian jellyfish market, a paler-coloured product has a higher retail value. Yellow, but not brown colour, is acceptable. The longer the sample remains, the darker it becomes. If it remains too long, it turns brown, and the product is unacceptable (Hsieh et al., 2001).

2.3 Jellyfish exports and imports

A significant discrepancy among the values were observed when examining the export data from the published literature (Tab. 2) and FAO (2024b) concerning SA countries during 2000–2022. To address this, the highest cumulative value generated either from the published literature or the FAO (Supplementary Tab. 2) for a marketing (trade) year was considered in the analysis (Fig. 6). However, the original or estimated landing data were not used for back-calculation of missing export values due to uncertainty of the fact that whether the landings by a country in a particular year were exported in the same year after processing.

The country-wise export diversity of jellyfish began to increase slightly from 2004 to 2011, and after 2012, export diversity in SA has been much higher, continuing up to the most recent data available for 2022. From 2000 to 2022, the highest jellyfish export was recorded from India, with a cumulative export of 35,051.77 tonnes [1,523.99 tonnes per trade year (PTY)]. However, in many cases, jellyfish export data in SA are not species-specific. For example, in 2016, about 70 tonnes of jellyfish were exported from India to Thailand and Vietnam (Seair 2016, as cited in Chinnadurai et al., 2021), but the relevant species name was not given. Additionally, 378 tonnes of dried (salted) jellyfish (2016–2017) valued at 0.62 million US dollars, 1,667 tonnes (2017–2018) valued at 3.75 million US dollars, 1,689 tonnes (2018–2019) valued at 3.90 million US dollars, and 1,195 tonnes (2019–2020) valued at 1.60 million US dollars were exported from Indian ports including Tuticorin, Chennai, Vizag, Pipavav, Mundra, Krishnapatnam, and Kattupalli/Ennore to China, SEA, and some other countries (Sreeram et al., 2021), but the relevant species were not known. The total jellyfish exports (dried, salted, or in brine) from Tamil Nadu, India in 2017 were 1,781.9 tonnes (HFS 2019 [assuming mistakenly reported as 17,819 tonnes]).

After India, the second-highest jellyfish exporter was Pakistan, with a cumulative export of 14,641.46 tonnes [1,626.83 tonnes PTY]. The third highest exporter was Bahrain, with a total of 11,245.34 tonnes [1,249.48 tonnes PTY]. Also, in 2018, there was a jellyfish re-export of 185 tonnes recorded from Bahrain, which may have been received from Iran. Sri Lanka recorded a cumulative of 2,522.85 tonnes [360.41 tonnes PTY]. Other countries such as Iran and Bangladesh recorded minor cumulative amounts of 607.33 tonnes [121.47 tonnes PTY] and 0.35 tonnes, respectively. From the entire SA region, about 64,000 tonnes were exported over the period from 2000 to 2022, with an average annual export volume of ∼2,786 tonnes.

Total export income over this period amounts to ∼90 million US dollars [∼3.9 million US dollars PTY]. India emerges as the predominant contributor (∼80%), with a significant portion of the total at 71.86 million US dollars. Other countries such as Pakistan, Bahrain, Iran, and Sri Lanka contribute about 14.41 million US dollars, 3.14 million US dollars, 0.33 million US dollars, and 0.26 million US dollars, respectively. Despite fluctuations, the overall trend highlights a robust engagement in jellyfish exports within SA, underscoring its economic significance in the region.

In SA, countries such as Iraq, Kuwait, Maldives, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE did not contribute significantly to the jellyfish fishery and lack export data in the published literature and FAO (2024b) [except for (López-Martínez and Álvarez-Tello 2013), as the given account on the UAE (reported as EUA) is doubtful; and additionally, one export has been recorded for the UAE, including 1 tonne in 2014 by gaining of 7,000 US dollars and a few re-export records (1 tonne per year in 2012, 2013, and 2015, with ∼zero EF in 2017 and 2018. Similarly, exports from Oman were recorded as ∼zero EF in 2013 and ∼zero EF in 2017 (FAO 2024b)]. However, accurate and sufficient data are lacking to support the presence of a jellyfish fishery in Oman and the UAE at present. Despite this, these countries have sporadically imported small quantities of jellyfish from 2011 onwards.

During the 2000 to 2022 period, Saudi Arabia remained the largest importer of jellyfish in the SA region, with a total volume of 57.64 tonnes [11.528 tonnes PTY], recording the highest single-year import in 2019 at 56.88 EF tonnes. Other moderate importers included India 26 tonnes [6.5 tonnes PTY], followed by the UAE 24.62 tonnes [2.462 tonnes PTY], Oman 21 tonnes [10.5 tonnes PTY], Qatar 20 tonnes [6.667 tonnes PTY], and Sri Lanka 14.23 tonnes [3.558 tonnes PTY]. Additionally, Kuwait 3.93 tonnes [0.491 tonnes PTY], Bahrain 3.24 tonnes [0.324 tonnes PTY], Iraq 1.78 tonnes [0.254 tonnes PTY], and the Maldives 1.33 tonnes [0.121 tonnes PTY] were among the least importers. Bangladesh has ∼zero imports (0.01 tonne in 2019). Notably, most jellyfish imports in the region began after 2012 (Supplementary Tab. 3).

A key trend observed is that the Maldives holds a record for the highest number of consecutive years as a jellyfish importer, with uninterrupted imports over 11 years (2012 to 2022). This indicates a sustained and stable demand for jellyfish over the years, making the Maldives the most consistent importer in the region. According to the above records, even countries with established jellyfish industries in the SA region occasionally imported jellyfish from 2004 onwards. These imports were likely intended to cater to the food preferences of tourists in the region (Fig. 7).

thumbnail Fig. 6

The country-wise jellyfish export quantities (bars) and values (line) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative exports from each country as a percentage are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 2. Note: The highest cumulative quantities, generated from the literature/FAO data for each year, were utilised to develop this graph.
thumbnail Fig. 7

The country-wise contribution (cumulative percentage) of jellyfish imports in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022. Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 3.

2.4 Future fisheries potentials

Over the past two and a half decades, there has been an apparent increase in the quantity of bycatch reported along various locations on the coast of SA, resulting in significant adverse effects. For instance, in 2002, a huge bloom of C. orsini occurred across the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, adversely affected both artisanal and industrial fisheries in Iran (Daryanabard and Dawson 2008) as well as in Pakistan (Psomadakis et al., 2015). This species has appeared periodically off the Sistan and Baluchestan province of Iran, during 2002–2003, 2009–2010, and 2019–2020 (Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute 2024), and the C. orsini bloom that appeared in 2019–2020 seriously affected the major fishing operations, including tuna gillnetting, shrimp trawling, and fish trawling, and the livelihood of thousands of fishers along the Sindh and Balochistan coasts of Pakistan (The News International 2020; WWF 2020). Jellyfish blooms have adversely affected multiple locations along the Indian (Shiledar 2013; Mohan 2021) and Sri Lankan (Karunarathne et al., 2024b) coastlines too. Most of such jellyfish blooms belong to harvestable species, but they remain untapped.

Currently, a fishery for C. orsini operates only in India and Sri Lanka, but there is potential for harvesting this highly marketable species in Iran and Pakistan as well. A seafood company specialising in harvesting, processing, and exporting jellyfish collected samples of C. orsini from Char Dhoro along the coast of Pakistan in February 2020 for preliminary inspection regarding its fishery potential, and the abundance of this species along the coast of Pakistan may soon lead to the establishment of a fishery (Gul 2020).

Another edible catostylid species, Crambione mastigophora Maas, 1903, was reported off the southeast coast of India (Haldar 2001) and off the northeast coast of Sri Lanka (Karunarathne and de Croos 2023a), but its stock status remains unknown. Karunarathne and de Croos (2023a) suggest a novel fishing ground (Jaffna-Mullaitivu coast) and a fishing season (June and July) for C. mastigophora in Sri Lanka, and currently there are records of C. mastigophora nowhere else in SA.

There was a fishery for L. gracilis in Bangladesh (Das et al., 2023 [as L. robustus]) and Sri Lanka (Karunarathne et al., 2024b). Murugan and Durgekar (2008) reported that ∼7 million tonnes of L. smithii were landed on the southeast coast of India in 2007 [this quantity is doubtful according to Riyas and Biju Kumar (2021)]. These two lobonemids might not be distinct species, but possibly synonyms (Karunarathne et al., 2024b), and no other fishing ground is identifiable for the lobonemids in SA, as their geographic distribution does not extend from the Bay of Bengal towards the Arabian Sea.

Currently, in SA, R. hispidum is harvested from the Sindh coast of Pakistan and the northwest coast of India. Although there is no fishery for this species in Sri Lanka, Karunarathne and de Croos (2023a) proposed a new fishing ground (Puttalam-Mannar coast), and a fishing season (June to September) based on its abundance. Rhopilema cf. hispidum has also been reported on the coast of Bangladesh (Rumman et al., unpublished) and Iran (Jafari et al., 2019), though stock data are lacking. A population of R. hispidum was observed along the southwest coast of India (authors' observations), suggesting the potential to identify new fishing grounds and to estimate their population size. In Israel, about 100 kilograms of another Rhopilema species was harvested in 2018 as part of a pilot project for export to China (Edelist et al., 2021), but there is no evidence of a commercial fishery.

A cepheid jellyfish, Netrostoma coerulescens Maas, 1903 (in Malayalam: Ona Chori, Neela Chori, Krishna Chori) blooms annually along the southwest coast (around Shanghumughom Beach) of Kerala, India from June to September (Biju Kumar 2012; Abdul Riyas, pers. comm.), and there may be potential to harvest this species as food. This robust medusa also occurs with C. orsini among the islands of the Maldives during the Southwest Monsoon (Authors' unpublished data). However, to meet the demand in Maldivian hotels catering to tourists, processed jellyfish are imported from Sri Lanka (Karunarathne and de Croos 2025) and other Asian countries. Since these species could be an alternative for local consumption rather than importing, conducting a feasibility study to explore the potential for utilising these existing species for local consumption, even on a small scale, seems crucial.

Without being restricted to SA and other Asian regions, jellyfish fisheries could be extended towards Africa to minimise the over-exploitation of Asian species. About a decade ago, local seafood processors in Mozambique, operating under Chinese administration, successfully processed a small quantity of the catostylid Crambionella stuhlmanni (Chun, 1896) harvested from Maputo Bay, demonstrating its suitability as a food product (Wang Rongbin, pers. comm.). However, no fishery was developed on a commercial scale. Adongo (2019) identified jellyfish from four families caught incidentally in artisanal net fishery landings in Ghana as a potential resource. The FAO reports jellyfish catches in Namibia, but these are likely discarded bycatch from other fisheries (Brotz 2016a). While there is no evidence of commercial-scale fisheries occurring in these countries to date, there is a possibility of such fisheries emerging in the future, driven by increasing demand for jellyfish products in Asian markets.

2.5 Managing the jellyfish industry in SA

There is an inverse relationship between the jellyfish fishing season and the monsoon (Omori and Nakano 2001). In SA, jellyfish fishery is highly seasonal and practiced according to the monsoonal pattern. Seasonal currents in the northern Indian Ocean exhibit distinct patterns: during winter (October to March), they predominantly flow westward near the Malay Archipelago towards the Arabian Sea; conversely, in summer (April to September), the currents reverse direction, carrying an eastward flow from Somalia into the Bay of Bengal (Schott et al., 2009; Rizal et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2015). The occurrence and distribution of jellyfish blooms in SA waters could take place due to the influence of these monsoon currents (Das et al., 2023), whereas the population size may depend on multiple physicochemical factors. Human activities such as land reclamation, pollution, and overfishing have further impacted jellyfish populations in SA (Brotz 2011). For example, there was a population reduction of harvestable jellyfish off Karachi, Pakistan between 2006 and 2011, probably due to overfishing (Roghay 2011).

Focusing on specific species for exploitation may not be environmentally sustainable and could lead to overfishing if not managed properly (FAO 2022b). Therefore, Heller (2007) advocated for legal measures to regulate the jellyfish fishery in Odisha (India) citing the burgeoning demand for jellyfish in foreign markets as a threat to the survival of endangered Olive Ridley turtles along the Odisha coast. In 2008, the Forest and Wildlife Department of India directed divisional forest officials in coastal areas of Odisha State to submit a comprehensive report on jellyfish catching and selling practices to safeguard jellyfish populations (Anonymous 2008). A group of members of the Bahrain Parliament also advocated banning the export of jellyfish to international markets, citing concerns over the detrimental impact on Bahrain's marine biodiversity. They argued that the current rate of jellyfish harvesting is causing significant damage to the local ecosystem, potentially leading to the extinction of edible jellyfish within three decades if the practice continues unchanged (Al A’Ali 2021). However, no limitations have been imposed on jellyfish fishery in Bahrain (Bahrain News Agency 2024) or any other country in SA thus far.

The jellyfish industry in SA faces several other challenges. Typically, the jellyfish fishery emerges as a potential alternative option when there is a decline in fish catches (e.g., Sreeram et al., 2021). Although the jellyfish fishery is important to the livelihood along the coast of SA (e.g., Swathilekshmi 2011), it remains as a small-scale commercial fishery (e.g., Muhammed and Sultana 2008; Kumawat et al., 2021), and it is still not well-organised (Sreeram et al., 2021). The rapid expansion of the jellyfish fishery on the Pulicat and Pondicherry coasts of India in 2003 led to significant conflict as merchants and fishers vied for dominance in the fishery, and pollution from jellyfish processing huts exacerbated the situation (Magesh and Coulthard 2004). Natural factors may also adversely affect the jellyfish industry; for example, in 2004, the tsunami inflicted severe damage to the jellyfish fishery infrastructure in India (CMFRI 2009). By 2015, many processing facilities for jellyfish in India had closed due to a lack of buyers for the exported product (Brotz 2016a).

To strengthen this industry, optimising harvesting and processing techniques through research and development is crucial, focusing on maximising jellyfish utilisation, including low-demand parts (e.g., bells of catostylids). To maximise economic benefits for local fishers, it is recommended that Pakistani companies process the entire jellyfish, including the bell, as current practices that omit the bell result in nearly a 50% profit reduction. Enhancing salting/processing techniques and promoting jellyfish bell marketing would significantly contribute to industry development (Gul et al., 2015). Strengthening market connections, implementing stringent quality control measures, and exploring value-added products are critical. Capacity building through training programmes will empower stakeholders, supporting sustainable growth and meeting global market demands effectively. These efforts aim to enhance local economies dependent on jellyfish fisheries, ensuring stable incomes for coastal communities and fostering industry resilience in the region.

Effective jellyfish fishery management in SA necessitates a balanced approach that minimises environmental impacts and ensures sustainability within carrying capacities. To achieve this, robust management plans are essential, incorporating comprehensive regulations to prevent overexploitation (Kingsford et al., 2000). Various strategies are employed globally to manage jellyfish fisheries. For instance, Australia introduced a precautionary approach of setting ‘Total Allowable Catches’ (TACs) (Fisheries Victoria 2002, 2006). Additionally, some countries, including Australia, Mexico, and the USA, have implemented ‘Minimum Size Limits’ (MSLs) on medusae to prevent the capture of immature specimens. This approach not only conserves juvenile populations, but allows jellyfish to grow to larger sizes, thereby increasing profitability due to higher market prices (Brotz et al., 2017). Moreover, implementing seasonal and/or area-specific fishing closures can aid in allowing populations to recover during critical breeding periods. Effective jellyfish fishery management in SA should include rigorous monitoring of jellyfish populations to establish sustainable catch limits based on scientific data and models (e.g., Asrial et al., 2015; Raoult and Goston 2018; Lüskow 2020). Promoting selective fishing techniques that minimise bycatch and ecosystem disruption is also essential.

Effective management of the jellyfish fishery requires strong communication and coordination among the government authorities, fishers, collectors, processors, buyers, the export market, and the scientific community. This ensures sustainable harvesting, efficient processing, and a stable supply chain that meets both local and international demand (Brotz et al., 2021). By prioritising sustainability and adopting proactive measures, SA can safeguard its jellyfish fisheries for future generations, while preserving marine biodiversity and ecosystem health. However, further research is necessary to identify the most suitable management techniques for jellyfish fisheries in the SA region.

3 Conclusion

Currently, jellyfish fisheries in southern Asia are primarily contributed to by six countries: Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with India being the leading contributor. The current fishery involves five/six species, represented by three jellyfish families, with catostylids being the most commercially significant. This region accounts for ∼ one-tenth of the global average annual jellyfish capture production, generating about one-third of the global jellyfish industry's average annual revenue. Processed jellyfish products, treated mainly with salt and alum, are reduced to nearly one-tenth of their wet weight and are predominantly exported to Southeast Asian markets and China. A recurring trend in significant jellyfish landings, with peak occurrences ∼ every nine (range: 8–10) years, has been observed, consistently persisting over multiple decades.

Southern Asia still holds considerable potential for identifying new commercially important jellyfish species, exploring additional fishing grounds, and expanding the trade market. If managed sustainably, the next major jellyfish fishery—projected to peak around 2030—could result in a substantial surge in both jellyfish capture production and export trade, substantially benefiting the regional economy and meeting growing market demands.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Drs. Raju Saravanan [Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, India] and Abdul Riyas [University of Calicut, India] for providing some literature/data. Mr. Wang Rongbin and other jellyfish exporters from different Asian countries provided some additional data. We thank Dr. Florian Lüskow [University of British Columbia, Canada] for valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

Funding

No specific grant was received for this research from funding organisations in the public, private, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors' contribution

Karunarathne AD [preparation of the original draft; data analysis], Karunarathne KD [preparation of the original draft; final editing].

Data availability statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article and in the supplementary tables.

Supplementary Material

Table S1. Jellyfish landings (capture production) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (in tonnes) based on the published literature and the FAO (2024a).

Table S2. Jellyfish exports in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (volumes in tonnes; values in 1000 US dollars) based on the published literature and the FAO (2024b).

Table S3. Jellyfish imports in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (volumes in tonnes; values in 1000 US dollars) based on the FAO (2024b).

Access here

References

  • Adongo PA. 2019. Studies on Abundance of Jellyfish in Beach Seine Landings along the Coast of Greater Accra Region of Ghana. PhD Thesis, University of Ghana. [Google Scholar]
  • Al A’Ali M. 2021. Ban sought on jellyfish export. Gulf Daily News, accessed from https://www.gdnonline.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Ali TS, Abahussain AA. 2013. Status of commercial fisheries in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Basrah J. Agric. Sci. 26: 220–238. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Ames CL. 2018. Medusa: a review of an ancient cnidarian body form. In: Kloc M, Kubiak J (Eds.), Marine organisms as model systems in biology and medicine; Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation, vol. 65. Springer, Cham, pp. 105–136. [Google Scholar]
  • Anonymous. 1986. Sri Lanka opens markets for new species. Fishing News International, December. [Google Scholar]
  • Anonymous. 2007. Net closing in on jellyfish exporters. The Nation, edition of November 25. [Google Scholar]
  • Anonymous. 2008. Govt bid to save jellyfish. New Indian Express, Kendrapara, India, edition of October 4. Retrieved from http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/ [Google Scholar]
  • Aquatic Invertebrate TAG. 2013. Jellyfish Care Manual. Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD. [Google Scholar]
  • Asrial E, Prajitno A, Susilo E, Bintoro G. 2015. RAPJELLYFISH method to evaluate the sustainability status of edible jellyfish resource management in the Saleh Bay, Indonesia. Int. J. Recent Sci. Res. 6: 5190–5198. [Google Scholar]
  • Bahrain News Agency. 2024. Bahrain bans export of all types of fish, shrimp caught in its territorial waters. Retrieved from https://www.bna.bh/en/ [Google Scholar]
  • Barbier M, Milo H. 2010. New partnerships for blue biotechnology development—innovative solutions from the sea. Report on CIESM International Workshop, Monaco, 11 to 12 November 2010, The Mediterranean Science Commission: Madrid, Spain. [Google Scholar]
  • Behera PR, Jishnudev MA, Ghosh S, Saravanan R, Joshi KK. 2019. Jellyfish diversity in estuarine and coastal waters of Andhra Pradesh, presented at World Brackishwater Aquaculture Conference (BRAQCON), Chennai, India, 22–25 January 2019. [Google Scholar]
  • Behera PR, Jishnudev MA, Rao PB, Ghosh S. 2018. Emerging fishery for the jellyfish Crambionella annandalei along the coast of Andhra Pradesh. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 236: 24–25. [Google Scholar]
  • Behera PR, Jishnudev MA, Saravanan R, Roul SK, Ghosh S, Uma MV, Joshi KK. 2020b. Redescription of the enigmatic jellyfish, Crambionella annandalei (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) from Indian waters. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 100: 691–699. [Google Scholar]
  • Behera PR, Raju SS, Jishnudev MA, Shubhadeep S, Saravanan R. 2020a. Emerging jellyfish fisheries along Central South East coast of India. Ocean Coast. Manag. 191: 1–7. [Google Scholar]
  • Behera PR, Thirumaran G, Sahu BK, Das RR. 2022. High occurrence of Jellyfish (Catostylus perezi, Ranson, 1945) in proximity to industrial development, Gulf of Kutch/Kachchh, India. Indian J. Geo Mar. Sci. 51: 536–542. [Google Scholar]
  • Biju Kumar A. 2012. Shifting baselines and jellyfish blooms. Importance of research in relation to jellyfish export potential. Fish. Chimes 32: 30–31. [Google Scholar]
  • Borchert F, Emadodin I, Klu C, Rotter A, Reinsch T. 2021. Grass growth and N2O emissions from soil after application of jellyfish in coastal areas. Front. Mar. Sci. 8: 711601. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L. 2011. Changing jellyfish populations: trends in large marine ecosystems. Fisheries Centre Research Report 19. Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L. 2016a. Jellyfish fisheries of the world. PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L. 2016b. Jellyfish fisheries: a global assessment. In: Pauly D, Zeller D (Eds.), Global atlas of marine fisheries. Island Press, Washington DC, pp. 110–124. [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L, Cisneros-Montemayor AM, Cisneros-Mata MA. 2021. The race for jellyfish: Winners and losers in Mexico's Gulf of California. Mar. Policy 134: 104775 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L, Pauly D. 2017. Studying jellyfish fisheries: Towards accurate national catch reports and appropriate methods for stock assessments. In: Mariottini GL. (Ed.), Jellyfish: Ecology, distribution patterns and human interactions. Nova Publishers, Hauppauge, New York, NY, USA, Vol. 15, pp. 313–329. [Google Scholar]
  • Brotz L, Schiariti A, López-Martínez J, Álvarez-Tello J, Peggy YH, Jones RP, Quiñones J, Dong Z, Morandini AC, Preciado M, Laaz E. 2017. Jellyfish fisheries in the Americas: origin, state of the art, and perspectives on new fishing grounds. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 27: 1–29. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Chaturvedi G. 2004. Women in fisheries on the east coast of India: a review. Bay of Bengal Programme Inter-Governmental Organisation, Rep. No. 97. [Google Scholar]
  • Chidambaram L. 1984. Export oriented processing of Indian jellyfish (Muttai chori, TAMIL) by Indonesian method at Pondicherry region. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 60: 11–13. [Google Scholar]
  • Chinnadurai S, Gautham K, Jha PN, Renjith RK, Madhu VR. 2021. A targeted trawl fishery for jellyfish off-Kollam. ICAR Cent. Inst. Fish. Tech. Fishtech Rep. 7: 1–3. [Google Scholar]
  • Cho S, Ahn JR, Koo JS, Kim SB. 2014. Physicochemical properties of gelatin from jellyfish Rhopilema hispidum. Fish Aquat Sci. 17: 299–304. [Google Scholar]
  • Chun KW, Damdinsuren E, Yeom K, Ezaki T. 2011. Effect of jellyfish fertilizer application on seedling growth. J Japan Soc Reveg. Tech. 37: 155–158. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • CMFRI. 2007. Landings of jellyfish at Ongole. Cadalmin 114. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi. [Google Scholar]
  • CMFRI. 2009. Unusual heavy landings of jellyfish, Crambionella stuhlmanni at Pulicat landing centre, Chennai. CMFRI Newsletter 122. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi. [Google Scholar]
  • CMFRI. 2010. Seasonal jellyfish fishery in Jakhau, Gujarat. Cadalmin 127. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi. [Google Scholar]
  • Daryanabard R, Dawson MN. 2008. Jellyfish blooms: Crambionella orsini (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) in the Gulf of Oman, Iran, 2002 to 2003. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 88: 477–483. [Google Scholar]
  • Das Y, Karunarathne KD, Roy M, Chowdhury MSN, Sharifuzzaman SM. 2023. Record of Crambionella annandalei Rao, 1931 from Bangladesh, with a review of the geographic distribution of the genus Crambionella (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). Mar. Biol. Res. 19: 279–293. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Dong J, Wang B, Duan Y, Wang A, Li Y, Sun M, Chai Y, Liu X, Yu X, Guo D, Wang X. 2018. The natural ecology and stock enhancement of the edible jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye, 1891) in the Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea, China. In: Türkoglu M, Önal U, Ismen A, (Eds.), Marine Ecology: Biotic and Abiotic Interactions 9 pp. 753–823. [Google Scholar]
  • Edelist D, Angel DL, Canning-Clode J, Gueroun SK, Aberle N, Javidpour J, Andrade C. 2021. Jellyfishing in Europe: current status, knowledge gaps, and future directions towards a sustainable practice. Sustainability 13: 12445. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • El Gamal AR. 2015. Jellyfish processing and export in Sri Lanka. Fish Consulting Group. Retrieved from https://fishconsult.org/?p=12490 [Google Scholar]
  • Elliott A, Hobson V, Tang KW. 2017. Balancing fishery and conservation: A case study of the barrel jellyfish Rhizostoma octopus in South Wales. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 74: 234–241. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Emadodin I, Reinsch T, Rotter A, Orlando-Bonaca M, Taube F, Javidpour JA. 2020. Perspective on the potential of using marine organic fertilizers for the sustainable management of coastal ecosystem services. Environ. Sustain. 3: 105–115. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Erftemeijer PLA, Langenberg VT. 2010. Jellyfishes in the Arabian Gulf: an overview, presented at Third International Jellyfish Blooms Symposium, Mar del Plata, Argentina, 14 July 2010 (Poster). [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2011. Report of the workshop on fishery stock indicators and stock status: Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran, 26–29 July 2009. FAO Fishery and Aquaculture Report No. 970, FAO, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2020. Fishery and aquaculture country profiles: The Islamic Republic of Iran. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2022a. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2022: Towards blue transformation. FAO, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2022b. Thinking about the future of food safety: A foresight report. FAO, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2023. Fishery and aquaculture statistics: Yearbook 2020. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics, FAO, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2024a. FishStat: Global capture production 1950-2022 [accessed 29 March 2024]. In: FishStatJ. Available at: https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/statistics/software/fishstatj [Google Scholar]
  • FAO. 2024b. FishStat: Global aquatic trade − All partners aggregated 1976-2022 [accessed 30 July 2024]. In: FishStatJ. Available at: https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/collection/global_commodity_prod [Google Scholar]
  • Fisheries Victoria. 2002. Developmental fisheries management plan, jellyfish (Catostylus mosaicus), 2003–2005. Fisheries Victoria and the Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Fisheries Division, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria, Australia. [Google Scholar]
  • Fisheries Victoria. 2006. Statement of management arrangements for the Victorian developmental jellyfish fishery (Catostylus mosaicus). Fisheries Victoria Division, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia. [Google Scholar]
  • Freeman S, Booth AM, Sabbah I, Tiller R, Dierking J, Klun K, Rotter A, Ben-David E, Javidpour J, Angel DL. 2020. Between source and sea: The role of wastewater treatment in reducing marine microplastics. J. Environ. Manage. 266: 110642. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Globefish. 2023. Bahrain Globefish market profile: 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • Go4WorldBusiness. 2009. PMM Aqua Traders. Available at: https://www.go4worldbusiness.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Govindan TK. 1984. A novel marine animal with much export potential. Seaf. Export J. 16: 9–11. [Google Scholar]
  • Gul S. 2020. Occurrence of jellyfish Crambionella orsini (Vanhoffen, 1888) (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) along the coast of Pakistan. World J. Biol. Biotech. 5: 31–32. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Gul S, Jahangir S, Schiariti A. 2015. Jellyfish fishery in Pakistan. Plankton Benthos Res. 10: 220–224. [CrossRef] [MathSciNet] [Google Scholar]
  • Haldar BP. 2001. Scyphomedusae: Cnidaria, in: Director (Ed.), Fauna of Godavari Estuary, Estuarine Ecosystem Series 4, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 15–20. [Google Scholar]
  • HFS. 2005. Handbook on Fisheries Statistics, 2004, 8th edn, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. [Google Scholar]
  • HFS. 2014. Handbook on Fisheries Statistics 2014, Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. [Google Scholar]
  • HFS. 2019. Handbook on Fisheries Statistics 2018, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India, New Delhi. [Google Scholar]
  • HFS. 2020. Handbook on Fisheries Statistics 2020, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Government of India, New Delhi. [Google Scholar]
  • HFSP. 2012. Handbook of fisheries statistics of Pakistan, Vol. 20, Marine Fisheries Department, Government of Pakistan, Fish Harbour, West Wharf, Karachi. [Google Scholar]
  • Heller W. 2007. Demand for jellyfish keeps olive ridley turtles starving in Orissa, India. Retrieved from https://www.divephotoguide.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Hossain ST, Sugimoto H, Asagi N, Araki T, Ueno H, Morokuma M, Kato H. 2013. The use of desalinated-dried jellyfish and rice bran for controlling weeds and rice yield. J. Org. Syst. 8: 28–37. [Google Scholar]
  • Hsieh YHP, Leong FM, Rudloe J. 2001. Jellyfish as food, in: Purcell JE, Graham WM, Dumont HJ (Eds.), Jellyfish Blooms: Ecological and Societal Importance, Developments in Hydrobiology, Vol. 155, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 11-17. [Google Scholar]
  • Hussein OS, Saleh OI. 2014. Effect of soaking in jellyfish on some parameters of wheat and lentil seedlings. J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. Food Technol. 8: 32–39. [Google Scholar]
  • Iranian Fisheries Science Research Institute. 2024. The bloom of jellyfish in the Oman Sea and a review of its history in the region. Retrieved from http://english.ifsri.ir/news/view-51938.aspx [Google Scholar]
  • Jafari H, Honari H, Zargan J, Jahromi ST. 2019. Identification and hemolytic activity of jellyfish (Rhopilema sp., Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) venom from the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea. Biodiversitas 20: 1228–1232. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • James DB, Vivekanandan E, Srinivasarengan S. 1985. Menace from medusae off Madras with notes on their utility and toxicity. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. India 27: 170–174. [Google Scholar]
  • Kannappan S, Shanthi B, Krishnan M, Chandrasekaran VS, Balasubramanian CP, Amabasankar K. 2013. Jellyfish processing as a cottage industry in the Pulicate Lake, India. INFOFISH Int. 5: 40–42. [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, Amirthalingam A, De Silva MLI, De Croos MDST. 2024a. Macro symbionts of jellyfish reported in the coastal waters of Sri Lanka. Thalassas 40: 463–475. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, Amaya HKT, Digamadulla DS, De Croos MDST. 2024b. Redescription of the commercially harvested jellyfish, Crambionella orsini and Lobonemoides gracilis (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) from Sri Lanka. Mar. Biol. Res. 20: 1–18. [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, De Alwis GWA, De Croos MDST. 2021. Live jellyfish-baited small-scale traditional trap fishery operated off the eastern coast of Sri Lanka. J. Indian Soc. Coast. Agric. Res. 39: 118–889. [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, De Croos MDST. 2021. Jellyfish species used as live baits in traditional trap fishery of Sri Lanka: Acromitus flagellatus and Lychnorhiza malayensis (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). J. Indian Soc. Coast. Agric. Res. 39: 172–182. [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, De Croos MDST. 2023a. Untapped edible jellyfish of Sri Lanka: Crambione mastigophora and Rhopilema hispidum (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa). Thalassas 39: 657–670. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, De Croos MDST. 2023b. Jellyfish fishery in Sri Lanka, presented at 7th International Jellyfish Blooms Symposium (JBS7, 2023), Thiruvananthapuram, India, 21–25 November 2023. [Google Scholar]
  • Karunarathne KD, De Croos MDST. 2025. Jellyfish fishery in Sri Lanka. Plankton Benthos Res. (about to be accepted). [Google Scholar]
  • Kim DW, Baek TS, Kim YJ, Choi SK, Lee DW. 2016. Moisturizing effect of jellyfish collagen extract. J. Soc. Cosmet. Sci. Korea 42: 153–162. [Google Scholar]
  • Kingsford MJ, Pitt KA, Gillanders BM. 2000. Management of jellyfish fisheries, with special reference to the Order Rhizostomeae. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 38: 85–156. [Google Scholar]
  • Krishnan SG. 1984. XV Diversification of products and markets—salted jellyfish—a potential diversified product for Japan! Hong Kong markets. Seaf. Export J. 16: 23–26. [Google Scholar]
  • Kumawat T, Saravanan R, Vinod K, Jaiswar AK, Deshmukhe G, Shenoy L. 2021. Fisher perceptions on impacts of jellyfish swarming on fishing operations along the Gujarat coast, India. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 63: 5–9. [Google Scholar]
  • Kumawat T, Saravanan R, Vinod K, Jaiswar AK, Deshmukhe G, Shenoy L, Divu D, Joshi KK, Gopalakrishnan A. 2023. Jellyfish fisheries along the Gujarat coast, India: Status and challenges. Mar. Policy 150: 105554. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Kuruwita R. 2008. Slippery slope to doom: Jellyfish are facing extinction due to over exploitation and lack of fishing regulations. Eye − Features, The Nation, October 5. [Google Scholar]
  • Kuthalingam MDK, James DB, Sarvesan R, Devadoss P, Manivasagam S, Thirumilu P. 1989. A note on the processing of the jellyfish at Alambaraikuppam near Mahabalipuram. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 98: 8–10. [Google Scholar]
  • Lengar Ž, Klun K, Dogsa I, Rotter A, Stopar D. 2021. Sequestration of polystyrene microplastics by jellyfish mucus. Front. Mar. Sci. 8: 690749. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • López-Martínez J, Álvarez-Tello J. 2013. The jellyfish fishery in Mexico. Agric. Sci. 4: 57–61. [Google Scholar]
  • Lüskow F. 2020. Importance of environmental monitoring: Long-term record of jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) biomass in a shallow semi-enclosed cove (Kertinge Nor, Denmark). Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 34: 100998. [Google Scholar]
  • Lüskow F, Galbraith MD, Hunt BVP, Perry RI, Pakhomov EA. 2021. Gelatinous and soft-bodied zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Organic, elemental, and energy contents. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 665: 19–35. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Magesh SJ, Coulthard S. 2004. Bloom or bust? Samudra Rep. 39: 15–20. [Google Scholar]
  • Manickaraja M, Balasubramanian TS. 2006. Processing of sun type jellyfish at Tharuvaikulam. Tech. Ext. Ser., Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin, India (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) 189: 16–17. [Google Scholar]
  • Mohan A. 2021. As jellyfish blooms increase in north Kerala, fishers put a pause on work. MONGABAY. Retrieved from https://india.mongabay.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Mohan S, Rajapackiam R, Rajan S. 2011. Unusual heavy landings of jellyfish Crambionella stulhamani (Chun) and processing methods at Pulicat landing centre, Chennai. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 208: 27–29. [Google Scholar]
  • Muhammed F, Sultana R. 2008. New record of edible jellyfish, Rhizostoma pulmo (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa: Rhizostomitidae) from Pakistani waters. Mar. Biodivers. Rec. 1: 1–3. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Murugan A, Durgekar R. 2008. Beyond the tsunami: Status of fisheries in Tamil Nadu, India: A snapshot of present and long-term trends. United Nations Development Programme and Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore, India. [Google Scholar]
  • Naalir M. 2008. Jellyfish exports becoming lucrative foreign exchange earner − Fisheries Minister. Daily News, Sri Lanka, September 18. [Google Scholar]
  • Naik R, Maheswarudu G, Prabhakar RVD, Venkataramana P, Rao K. 2016. Jellyfish as an export commodity. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 230: 33–34. [Google Scholar]
  • Nitin B, Ranipeta SS. 2018. Jewels of the sea: Machilipatnam locals find livelihood in jellyfish during fishing ban. The News Minute. Retrieved from https://www.thenewsminute.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Omori M, Nakano E. 2001. Jellyfish fisheries in southeast Asia. Hydrobiologia 451: 19–26. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Panda SK, Madhu VR. 2009. Studies on the preponderance of jellyfish in coastal waters of Veraval. Fish. Tech. 46: 99–106. [Google Scholar]
  • Pauly D, Ansell M, Chu E, Emam W, Franceschelli N, Jiang C, Krueger K, Palomares ML, Parducho VA, Peacock N, Sanz M, Tong S. 2022. Research for PECH Committee: Role and impact of China on world fisheries and aquaculture. European Parliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Brussels. [Google Scholar]
  • Pauly D, Graham W, Libralato S, Morissette L, Palomares MLD. 2009. Jellyfish in ecosystems, online databases, and ecosystem models. Hydrobiologia 616: 67–85. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Peng S, Qian YK, Lumpkin R, Du Y, Wang D, Li P. 2015. Characteristics of the near-surface currents in the Indian Ocean as deduced from satellite-tracked surface drifters. Part I: Pseudo-Eulerian statistics. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 45: 441–458. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Perera L. 2008. Jellyfish exports need checking. The Sunday Times, Sri Lanka, September 21. [Google Scholar]
  • Picow M. 2010. Bahrain fishers plea for help with their catch. GreenProphet, June 24. Retrieved from https://www.greenprophet.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • Prabhu PV, Joseph J, Madhavan P. 1987. Processing for dehydration of jellyfish. Presented at: Processing Seminar on Diversification of Post Harvest Technology for Low Cost Fish, Society of Fisheries Technologists (India), Cochin. [Google Scholar]
  • Prabhu PV, Joseph J, Madhavan P. 1988. Utilization of jellyfish. Fishing Chimes 7: 45. [Google Scholar]
  • Psomadakis PN, Osmany HB, Moazzam M. 2015. Field identification guide to the living marine resources of Pakistan. FAO Species Identification Guide for Fishery Purposes, FAO, Rome. [Google Scholar]
  • Raoult V, Gaston TF. 2018. Rapid biomass and size-frequency estimates of edible jellyfish populations using drones. Fish. Res. 207: 160–164. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • RECOFI Fisheries Reports. 2010. Trends and emerging issues of the Gulf fisheries: A regional perspective. Regional Commission for Fisheries, Fourth Meeting of the Working Group on Fisheries Management, Muscat, Oman. [Google Scholar]
  • RECOFI Fisheries Reports. 2012. Bahrain jellyfishes fishery − Bahraini Gulf waters (up to 10 m). Fisheries and Resources Monitoring System (FIRMS). [Google Scholar]
  • Riyas A, Biju Kumar A. 2021. Jellyfish fisheries in India: Status and trends. In: Mariottini GL, Killi N, Xiao L (Eds.), The Cnidaria, only a problem or also a resource. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp. 299–318. [Google Scholar]
  • Rizal S, Damm P, Wahid MA, Sundermann J, Ilhamsyah Y, Iskandar T. 2012. General circulation in the Malacca Strait and Andaman Sea: A numerical model study. Am. J. Environ. Sci. 8: 479–488. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Roghay S. 2011. Jellyfish on the menu? The News International, Karachi, Pakistan, July 18. [Google Scholar]
  • Roshan Moniri N, Roshan Moniri N, Zeller D, Al-Abdulrazzak D, Belhabib D. 2013. Fisheries catch reconstruction for Iran, 1950 to 2010. In: Al-Abdulrazzak D, Pauly D (Eds.), From dhows to trawlers: A recent history of fisheries in the Gulf countries, 1950 to 2010. Fisheries Centre Research Reports, vol. 21, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, pp. 7–16. [Google Scholar]
  • Roul SK, Behera PR, Pradhan RK, Saravanan R, Ghosh S, Rohit P. 2021b. Jellyfish as a human food and their fisheries: Odisha perspective. Presented at: International Conference on Plant Science in Post Genomics Era, March 14-16, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, India. [Google Scholar]
  • Roul SK, Behera PR, Saravanan R, Rohit P. 2021a. Jellyfish fishery along Odisha coast: an overview. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 249: 29–32. [Google Scholar]
  • Saravanan R, Ranjith L, Laxmilatha P, Joshi KK, Sadiq I, Gomathy S, Kandan KP, Nazar AKA. 2018. Jellyfish diversity along Tamil Nadu coast. Presented at: International Seminar on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity and Conservation (ISCMBC-2018), March 15-16, Parangipettai, India. [Google Scholar]
  • Tahera Q, Kazmi QB. 2008. New records of two jellyfish medusae from Pakistani waters. Mar. Biodivers. Rec. 1: 1–4. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Schott FA, Xie SP, McCreary Jr JP. 2009. Indian Ocean circulation and climate variability. Rev. Geophys. 47: R G1002. [Google Scholar]
  • Shiledar BAA. 2013. Fishing activity affected by swarming of jellyfish along the Sindhudurg coast of Maharashtra. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T. and E. Ser. 215: 39–39. [Google Scholar]
  • Sreeram MP, Ranjith L, Jasmine S, Kuriakose S, Shyam SS, Raju AK, Sreekumar KM, Jacob Peter P, Retheesh T, Augustine SK, Kingsly HJ. 2021. Emergent fishery of the catostylid jellyfish Crambionella orsini along the southern coast of India. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 63: 12–20. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • Swathilekshmi PS. 2011. Livelihood and level of aspiration of coastal fisher folk of Tamilnadu. Indian J. Soc. Res. 52: 31–54. [Google Scholar]
  • Tahera Q, Kazmi QB. 2008. New records of two jellyfish medusae from Pakistani waters. Mar. Biodivers. Rec. 1: 1 to 4. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
  • The News International 2020. Jellyfish affect fishing in Arabian Sea. Retrieved from https://www.thenews.com.pk/ [Google Scholar]
  • TradeArabia. 2011. Bahrain firm sees jellyfish export success. TradeArabia News Service, Manama, August 31. Retrieved from https://www.tradearabia.com/ [Google Scholar]
  • WWF. 2020. Massive jellyfish blooms reported in the Arabian Sea. World Wide Fund for Nature, February 13. Retrieved from https://www.wwfpak.org/ [Google Scholar]
  • Zimmer M. 2009. GFP: from jellyfish to the Nobel prize and beyond. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38: 2823–2832. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Cite this article as: Karunarathne AD, Karunarathne KD. 2025. Jellyfish fisheries in southern Asia. Aquat. Living Resour. 38: 8. https://doi.org/10.1051/alr/2025005

All Tables

Table 1

Fishing areas, seasons, and fishing methods for jellyfish species in southern Asian counties. Note: Each number in the second column correspondence to Fig. 2.

In the text
Table 2

Jellyfish processing and exporting in southern Asia.

In the text

All Figures

thumbnail Fig. 1

Three major regions (circles) where commercial jellyfish fishery takes place in Asia: Southern Asia (SA); Southeast Asia (SEA); and Eastern Asia (EA). Note: The Catostylidae, Lobonemidae, and Rhizostomatidae are the jellyfish families primarily targeted in the regions SA, SEA, and EA, respectively.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 2

Jellyfishing grounds in southern Asia (SA; 1, Bahrain; 2 and 3, Iran; 4 and 5, Pakistan; 6 to 21, India; 22, Bangladesh; 23 and 24, Sri Lanka): 1. Northern Bahrain coast (Gulf of Bahrain); 2. Khuzestan coast; 3. Bushehr coast; 4. Balochistan coast, 5. Sindh coast; 6. Kutch coast of Gujarat (Gulf of Kutch); 7. Saurashtra coast of Gujarat; 8. Udupi coast of Karnataka; 9. Kollam coast of Kerala; 10. Kanyakumari coast of Tamil Nadu; 11. Tuticorin coast of Tamil Nadu; 12. Ramanathapuram coast of Tamil Nadu; 13. Nagapattinam-Puducherry coast of Tamil Nadu; 14. Viluppuram-Chengalpattu coast of Tamil Nadu; 15. Thiruvallur coast of Tamil Nadu; 16. Guntur-Prakasam coast of Andhra Pradesh; 17. Krishna coast of Andhra Pradesh; 18. East Godavari coast of Andhra Pradesh; 19. Visakhapatnam coast of Andhra Pradesh; 20. Puri coast of Odisha; 21. Digha coast of West Bengal; 22. Cox’s Bazar coast; 23. Hambantota-Batticaloa coast; 24. Chilaw-Mannar coast.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 3

The country-wise jellyfish landings (quantity) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative landings in each country, as a percentage, are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 4

The annual species-wise jellyfish landings (quantity) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative landings of each species, as a percentage, are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 5

The annual species-wise jellyfish landings (percentage) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022. Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 1.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 6

The country-wise jellyfish export quantities (bars) and values (line) in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022 (the cumulative exports from each country as a percentage are indicated in the pie chart). Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 2. Note: The highest cumulative quantities, generated from the literature/FAO data for each year, were utilised to develop this graph.
In the text
thumbnail Fig. 7

The country-wise contribution (cumulative percentage) of jellyfish imports in southern Asia from 2000 to 2022. Source of data: Supplementary Tab. 3.
In the text

Current usage metrics show cumulative count of Article Views (full-text article views including HTML views, PDF and ePub downloads, according to the available data) and Abstracts Views on Vision4Press platform.

Data correspond to usage on the plateform after 2015. The current usage metrics is available 48-96 hours after online publication and is updated daily on week days.

Initial download of the metrics may take a while.